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Species: Gorilla

Use: N/A

Authors: J.E. Gould, University of West Florida and The Zoo

Methods: Focal instantaneous time samples

Publications/Presentations: N/A

Positional behaviors

Posture:

Lie:

Lying down: Specify, dorsal, ventral, lateral.

Leaning: Legs under body and body less than 45 degrees from horizontal-specify ventral or lateral and on which arm or arms.

Sit:

Sitting: Resting on buttocks- specify any support or suspension with hands.

Squatting: Knees bent, buttocks above heels-specify any support or suspension with hands.

Standing quadrupedal/pronograde

Standing, tripedal

Standing bipedal/upright

Crouching: Quad stand with limbs flexed/bent.

Walk:

Walking, quadrupedal/pronograde

Walking, tripedal

Walking, bipedal/upright

Other

Climbing: Specify up, down, left or right.

Hanging by hand(s)

Swinging by hand(s)

Brachiating: Progressing by swinging from one hold to another by the arms

Jumping

Spinning

Sliding

Rolling: Sideways.

Somersaulting: Head over heels.

Eat

Eating: Specify type of food.

Gathering: Gathering food in heaps.

Foraging: Wandering in search of food.

Sharing food: With another gorilla.

Symbolically eating

Drink

Drinking water

Drinking milk

Nursing

Eliminate

Defecating

Attending to feces

Handling feces

Passing gas

Urinating

Attending to urination

Handling urine

Look

Glancing: Briefly observing sideways out of corner of eyes.

Looking: Observing directly.

Watching/staring: Prolonged and attentive observing; curiosity?

Manipulate

Smelling

Mouthing

Reaching

Touching

Fiddling

Grasping/grabbing

Clasping/hugging/cuddling/embracing: In arms.

Releasing

Patting

Swiping

Slapping

Hitting

Kicking

Barging

Pushing

Pulling

Throwing

Swishing/splashing: Water

Holding

Carrying

Other

Approaching

Moving away

Retreating: Withdrawing from apparent danger (e.g., snake).

Avoiding/evading

Fleeing/escaping

Grimacing: e.g., at water spray.

Swatting insects

Killing insects

Catching insects

Nest building

Tool using

Tool manufacturing

Manipulate

Non-genital self-manipulating

Autogrooming: Picking through own hair with fingers and/or lips.

Rubbing

Scratching

Picking

Finger tapping

Hand clapping

Chin slapping

Hair pulling: Stereotypic/abnormal?

Genital self-manipulating

Masturbating

Bottom bouncing: By female.

Self-inspecting: Visually

Finger licking: May be associated with menstruation.

Finger smelling: May be associated with estrus.

Stereotypic/Abnormal Activity (may not be abnormal unless behavior is stereotypic; could include preceding behaviors listed under ÒmanipulateÓ)

Rocking

Swaying: Side to side.

Shuffling

Pacing

Self-biting

Self-grasping

Turning back

Sitting in corner: As though in bed.

Jawing: Opening and closing mouth.

Grinding teeth

Regurgitating and reingesting

Coprophagy: Eating dung.

Drinking urine

Sleeping: Eyes closed, no movement for 3 minutes.

Resting

Yawning

Looking: At self, specify body part if possible.

Self recognition

Sitting or standing in water

Running through water

Splashing in water

Chest-beating sequence: Release of accumulated tension associated with excitement as in sexual excitement, play, mild irritation, impatience, frustration, lonesomeness, novelty, or when in conflict between aggression and flight; this is the apparent primary function and cause; for additional functions as well as descriptions and components to be specified- see below under Òinter-individual oriented activityÓ both ÒinteractÓ and Òaggress-defendÓ.

Look

Glancing: Briefly observing sideways out of corner of eyes.

Looking: Observing directly.

Watching: Prolonged and attentive observing.

Staring: Listed below under ÒreproductiveÓ and Òaggressive actsÓ.

Interact (Nonagonistic behavior, includes play; note that several of these behaviors also occur in agonistic interactions- see under Òaggress-defendÓ).

Non-contact

In vicinity: 1-5 meters.

In proximity: Within armÕs length; approximately 1 meter.

Approaching: Moving towards.

Displacing: Taking place of another.

Lunging: Incipient charge: abrupt advance of 0-3 steps.

Charging: Running in lateral, not forward, if there is conflict between charge and retreat.

Chasing: Pursuing rapidly.

Standing off: Rigid/strut quad stance, facing each other; often associated with tight-lipped face- see below under ÒotherÓ, can be sexual initiation by female toward male or vice versa.

Moving away

Retreating: Withdrawing from what is dangerous or disagreeable.

Avoiding/evading

Fleeing/escaping

Chest-beating sequence

Reaching/inviting: Arm extended, hand open, palm up; initiates play; see also under ÒreproductiveÓ.

Arm-over response: palm down

Smelling

Imitating

Teasing

Play face/pleasure face: Relaxed, open mouthed

Play biting

Play walking

Play running

Play chasing

Play fleeing

Bouncy gait

Contact

Touching: Non-genital.

Hand holding

Grasping/grabbing

Clasping/hugging/cuddling/embracing: In arms

ReleasingÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊÊ

Giving

Taking

Leaning on

Grooming: Picking through hair or another with fingers and/or lips.

Tagging

Patting

Swiping

Slapping

Hitting

Kicking

Pullelling

Barging

Pushing

Pulling

Wrestling/grappling

Mouthing: Taking an arm or shoulder between teeth and appearing to bite, but applying no pressure; can be intimidation by dominant male and thus agonistic.

Reproductive

Charging parallel: By male, sometimes preceded by chest-beating display, usually followed by standing off.

Standing-off: See above under Ònon-contactÓ.

Staring: Can be sexual initiation by female toward male, often associated with standing off and head shaking, may be tight-lipped.

Head shaking: See below under Òaggress-defend: submissive displaysÓ.

Inviting: Extended arm with hand open and palm up by female while staring at male; another variation is drumming on hindquarter or ground by female while staring at male.

Offering-presenting: Prone position: female crouches, backs up toward male to display her genitalia, and looks back at him; supine position: female lays on back and makes rhythmic pelvic movements, also often inviting as above.

Inspecting genitalia

Manipulating gen.

Oral-genital contact

Mounting: Specify dorso-ventral or ventro-ventral.

Pelvic thrusting

Paternal/maternal caring: e.g. nursing.

Disciplining

Aggress-Defend (agonistic behavior, aggressive or defensive interaction)

Aggressive acts

Non-contact

Staring: Furrowed brow.

Staring open-mouthed/threat face: Specify if teeth showing.

Staring bared-teeth scream face/threat face

Head jerking or snapping: Toward antagonist; specify if audible snap of jaws.

Forward lunging: Incipient charge: abrupt advance of 0-3 steps.

Bluff charging: If conflict between charge and retreat; then lateral running.

Throw non-fecal material

Throwing feces

Physical contact

Hitting

Barging

Grappling

Biting

Etc.: See Òinteract contactÓ behaviors above.

Threat displays (Domination)

Chest beating sequence: Intimidation to repel intruders: for functions other than aggress-defend, see above under ÒinteractÓ and Òself-oriented activityÓ. Consists of rhythmic beating, with alternating cupped hands, of the chest, but also abdomen and thighs, as well as cheek drumming with mouth open, chin drumming with backs of fingers, and rhythmic beating of ground, floor, logs etc.; chest-beating is only one of 9 actions which do not necessarily all occur together, or in the following order; full sequence exhibited only by silverbacked males and infrequent-specify components present:

Hooting

Symbolically feeding

Rising bipedally

Throwing vegetation

Chest-beating

Leg kicking

Running sideways bipedally the quadrupedally

Slapping and tearing vegetation

Ground thumping (or brating/slapping other inanimate object, e.g., wall)

Strut standing: Very stiff quad posture, elbows bent outward, shoulders hunched, sometimes head diverted to side, brief sideways glances at opponent; commonly with tight-lipped/lip in/tense-mouth face; may occur at end of chest-beating display.

Strut walking: As above, with short-stepped quadrupedal walking.

Strut running: May be followed by striking a barrier or another animal with shoulder or forearm.

Turning head away: Also used to indicate aggression is not intended.

Head shaking: Also used to appease when unsure and during sexual initiation by female while staring at male; relatively rare; specify if lower jaw relaxed.

Cowering: Crouching on abdomen; head lowered, arms and legs tucked under; protects body.

Pursed-mouth/pout/light-distress face: Watch out, IÕm ready to get mad; or male during copulation.

Tight-lipped/lip-in/tense-mouth face: Usually with periodic quarter turns of head and sideways glancing; situations of uncertainty, tension, courtship; or female during copulation.

Grimacing

Fear grinning

Vocalizing

Piloerecting: Erecting body hair, especially on back and head.

Marking: e.g., by urinating.

Look

Glancing: Briefly observing sideways out of corner of eyes.

Looking: Observing directly.

Watching/staring: Prolonged and attentive observing; curiosity.

Interact (Non-agonistic behavior, includes play; see :inter-individual oriented activityÓ above for additional behaviors and descriptions)

Listening

Pursed-mouth/pout/light-distress face

Tight-lipped/lip-in/tense-mouth face

Chest beating sequence

Vocalizing

Exchanging/giving

Imitating

Signing: Specify: e.g., chest-tap, head tap, hand clap.

Aggress-defend (see Òinter-individual oriented activityÓ above for listing of specific behaviors)

Aggressive acts

Threat displays (Dominance)

Submissive displays (Submission)

Aggressive Calls

Roar/threat bark: Simple, mono-syllabic, sudden loud outburst of low-pitched harsh sound. Strong aggression of silverback male to predator (including human) or other group. Always followed by some type of aggressive behavior.

Growl: Deep, guttural prolonged noise, resembling growl of dog and not loud. Mild aggression in stationary group associated with ÒannoyanceÓ.

Pant series: Rapid sequence of forced expulsions of air, of very low frequency, seems whispered, resembles pig grunt. Mild threat within group.

Mild alarm calls

Question bark: Three notes, low-high-low, as in Òwho are you?Ó Very mild alarm or curiosity.

Hiccup bark: Resembling di-syllabic spurt of noise like a hiccup. Very mild alarm of curiosity.

Fear and Alarm calls

Silence: Sudden cessation of all sound emission, vocal and mechanical. Most extreme form of fear, e.g., to sounds of approaching poachers.

Screams: Shrill and prolonged emission of extremely loud sound. Aggressive disputes within group: copulating female.

Wraagh/alarm bark: Explosive, monosyllabic outburst of loud sound, abrupt beginning and end. Sudden alarming situation; loud noise; very close or sudden contact; not accompanied by aggression.

Distress calls

Cries: Wails, sobs, screeches and hooting types of distress calls; can build to screams or shrieks (temper tantrums). Infant separated or in difficulty.

Whines: Very soft, prolonged plaintive sound, like that of a puppy. Danger of injury or abandonment; not limited to infants.

Pig grunts: Short, rough, guttural grunts (av.9-10), resembling grunting of pigs feeding at a sty. Mild aggression in moving group, e.g., right of way dispute during feeding; silverback when pursuing female before copulation or when guiding group movements; disciplinary enforcement.

Hoot bark: Like bark of dog but more Òwho-whoÓ than Òwoof-woofÓ or Òwah-wahÓ sound; like hiccup and question barks but two, not one or three syllables. Alerting to mild alarm; group movement initiation.

Belch vocalization: Deep, prolonged rumble, like soft belch; most commonly long, di-syllabic throat-clearing (ummm-ummm) sound, with second note lower than first; at times more complex. Like croons, purrs, hums, moans, wails, or howls. Feeding; group contentment; localization; useful in allaying gorilla apprehension among human observers.

Hoot series: Given with or without a terminating chest-beat or other elements of that sequence. Prolonged series (av. 10-15) of Òhoo hoo hoosÓ, low-pitched, quiet at stat of series, building up. Intergroup encounters with aggressive component; intergroup communication/vocal probing/ social space echolocation.

Chuckles: Raspy expirations verging between pants and grunts. Social play, tickling.

Copulatory pants: Rapid series of soft, short duration hoots, becoming more prolonged and merging into long howl-like note. Silverback copulating. Also dove-coos by both sexes.

Whinnies: Resembles raspy neighing of horse. May be anomalous; ailing animal.