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Species: Bonobos (Pan paniscus)
Use: Bonobo Infant Development
Authors: Ann Weaver, Ethnologist, Emory University
Methods:
N/A
Publications/Presentations: Weaver, A. 1997. Bonobo
infant development. In Mills, J., Reinartz, G., de
Bois, H., van Elsacker, L., and van Puijenbroeck, B. (Eds). The care and
management of bonobos (Pan paniscus) in captive environments. Milwaukee,
WI: Zoological Society of Milwaukee County.
Arch: A body position attained by infant in the groin pocket while mother sits upright and ëcradlesí the infant with her knees. The back is strongly curved backward, throwing the head and shoulders back and chest forward. The arms are typically extended, although the elbows are usually bent, and moved rapidly through space in a random manner. Arch behavior is frequently exhibited in conjunction with flailing and poutfaces.
Bipedal Stand: An upright body position in which the body weight is borne on the feet with the legs and torso extended more or less vertically
Bipedal Walk: A locomotory pattern in which forward progress is made while the animal is bipedal (cf Bipedal Stand). The body weight is borne on the feet, the body is more or less upright and there is no weight- bearing support from the hands.
Bite: To cut into, pierce or nip with the teeth
Chew:
Working objects in the mouth with the lips and teeth, including sucking on
wrist, hand, thumb, fingers, feet, etc.
Climb: A locomotory pattern in which alternate hand and foot movements accomplish
forward progress in vertical or above-ground space. (cf Mountaineering)
Cryface: A facial grimace of fear and frustration in which the eyes are clenched and the lips open into a wide oval. The teeth are not necessarily exposed.
Curl: A resting position in which the animal lies on its side with limbs bent. The knees are drawn up and may be tucked close against the body.
Dangle: Hanging from an object or individual, with one or more limbs and body, moving loosely
Defecate: Passing of solid wastes
Drinking: Ingesting liquids
Elbow: A body position in which the torso is elevated and propped up by the arms while the animal is prone. The arms are bent at and the weight is borne by the elbows.
Elevated:
A body position in which the infant is held over the mother; this behavior
has only been seen between an infant and its mother. The individual that elevates
the infant is in a supine position and picks the infant up. The arms are extended
to hold the infant overhead. Eye contact may be maintained between the elevated
infant and conspecific. The infant often displays a playface.
The Elevated position is frequently accompanied by mother lowering the infant
by bending her arms to bring the infant in contact with the motherís mouth;
this aspect changes as the infant ages and becomes tickling, and finally grappling.
Technically, this behavior is not exhibited by the infant because it occurs
to the infant.
Extend Arm: A pattern of stretching the arm to full length or nearly full length. This behavior pattern is distinguished from Reach For because it lacks an object of focus. In contrast, the behavior pattern Reach For, has an object of focus toward which the arm is purposely extended.
Extend Foot: Stretching the foot outward in the manner of the EXTEND ARM pattern
Eye Open/Eye Closed: A form of facial expression in which the eyelids are open; the eyelids are closed. According to Plooij, differences in sleep behavior are exhibited in captive, mother-raised, nursery-reared and free-ranging primates and from various human environments. Data on sleep-awake periods from different care-taking environments may illuminate the evolutionary framework of human nurturing. The SDZ study provides a picture of sleep during the day.
Face Against Ground: A body position in which the head is lowered while the animal is in a quadrupedal or crouch position
Feed: Ingestion
Finger in Mouth: The finger in question may belong to the infant or a conspecific
Flailing: A general term for excessive localized activity comprised of high frequencies of behavioral elements which can be performed while the infant is ë stationaryí in the ventro/ventral position with or in the groin pocket of the mother. Behavior patterns include turn, kick, arch, position change, extend arm, extend foot, poutface, cryface, etc.Following: Locomoting toward an individual that is moving away
Grab: Maintaining contact by fisting an object or conspecific. Left-, Right- and two-handed Grab behavior patterns should be distinguished.
Grapple: Play-wrestling
Grin: Play-face and half play-face. (cf Plaooiji)
Head On/Head Off: A body position characterized by the location of the head. Head on behavior occurs when the individual rests (typically the lateral side of) the head on a surface, usually the mother. Head off behavior refers to the holding of the head away from the supportive surface by muscle control. Very young infants lack muscular control of the head; young infants exhibit a brief and unsteady version of this behavior.
Honk: A single, hoarse vocalization which appears to express fear, frustration or pain by an infant
Jockey: A manner of transportation in which the infant rides on the back of a conspecific. The chest of the rider is in contact with the ventrum of the individual being ridden.
Jump: A locomotory pattern in which the body is moved a short distance through space by propulsion from the legs and counter-balancing with extended arms
Kick: Forceful extension of a foot away from the body
Laugh: Staccato-rhythmic exhalations that easily develop into measured, whispery breaths that are usually given in rapid succession
Lean: A semi-upright body position in which the individual rests its body weight on its hips but holds the torso in an upward curve by supporting it with the full extension of one arm. The distance between the body and the extended arm determines how high the shoulders are elevated off the ground.
Licking: Sweeping contact between the tongue and some other surface
Look Around: Moving the eyes with or without moving head
Look At: Fixing the eyesLook at Mother: Fixing the eyes on the mother from a position in the groin pocket or while ventro/ventralManipulate: Handling or fiddling with an object using one or both hand or feet
Mountaineer: A locomotory pattern exhibited by infants moving or ëcrawlingí over their motherís body, usually upward and toward the nipple
Mouthing: An object is worked with the lips and tongue but is not bitten or held entirely within the mouth
Non-contact: Not touching a conspecific
Non-ventro/ventral: A body position of the infant in relation to the motherís body. The infantís chest is in contact with any area of the motherís body other than upright and against the motherís chest.
Not Visible: Out of sight
Open Mouth: Partial or complete exposure if the inside of the oral cavity through a widening of the lipsPosition Change: Stationary adjustment of body orientation or posture
Poutface: A facial expression in which the pursed lips are pushed forward and fan outward. This behavior pattern is typically associated with a negative state.
Prone: A body position in which the individual lies on its stomach
Pull: Taking hold of an object or individual with the hand or foot and drawing the hand or foot toward oneself without moving the trunk in the same directionPush: Contacting an object or another individual with the hand or foot and moving the contacted object away
Put Face Close: Orienting the head toward and moving it close to another individual or object, usually looking fixedly at the individual or object at close range
Reach For: The partial extension of an arm or leg toward an object. The reach for behavior pattern is often followed by grab when contact is made.
Rocking: A repetitive, side-to-side or forward-and-backward swaying which usually occurs in an upright crouched posture. The most frequent body position during Rocking involves knees splayed to either side and weight borne on legs and hips. Rocking may be exhibited in a quadrupedal position.
Rooting: Sideways movements of the head which usually occurs when the infant is in the ventro/ventral position. The arcing pattern of the head appears to be less than 45 degrees. This frenetic behavior often comes on rapidly without preliminary indications and can be repetitive or occur as one or two moves. (cf Turning). Rooting is usually accompanied by Open mouth and the eyes are squinted shut.
Quadrupedal Stand: A body position in which the weight is borne on all four limbs
Quadrupedal Walking: A locomotory pattern in which forward progress is made by means of alternate hand-and foot-falls. Quadrupedal walking escalates into trotting and running.
Scoot: A locomotory pattern in which the body is moved a short distance in space by passing the torso and legs through the arms, which are extended to the sides. Scooting moves the body less than a body length without walking.
Scratching: Slow or rapid contact of the nails over some part of the body. The fingers and elbow are bent and the arm is pulled toward and away from the body. Passes are usually long.
Scream: A loud piercing vocalization
Sit: An upright body posture in which the weight is borne on the buttocks and balance is provided by the feet
Suckle: Having the motherís nipple in the mouth, frequently accompanied by cheeks moving in and out
Supine: A body position in which the individual lies on its back
Suspended: A body position in which an individual hangs from an object for a time
Swing: Sweeping movement of the body or some part of the body through space. This behavior pattern is typically exhibited by an individual suspended under an immobile object.
Tongue-ing: The tongue is extended or flexed and worked without touching anything
Turn: A reorientation of the body. Infants often turn only the head: Head-Turning behavior is distinguished from rooting behavior by the 45+ degree arcing movement (cf Rooting). On older infants, turning often refers to reorientation of the head and shoulders.
Touch: Purposeful contact with a portion of the body
Urinate: Passing liquid wastes
Ventro/ventral: A body position characterized by chest-to-chest contact between individuals in which both animals are in the same head-up orientation. Abbreviated as v/v, this behavior pattern is routinely restricted to younger animals contacting older individuals.
Vocalizations: Soft to loud utterances. Vocalizations distinguished during the 1989-90 Infant Development Study included the honk, laugh, scream and whimper.
Whimper: Soft to loud mewing
Yawn: Function still unknown
